Test

Today in west civ we took a test.  I studied a lot and looked over all my notes but I still do not know if I did well or not.  I thought that it was really hard but some of them I knew, but i also thought I failed. I am really hoping that my grade wont bring my grade down by a lot because I have an 88 and I don't want it getting any lower.  I really hope that I did ok on the test.  I am also nervous for the exam and I know that i need to study a lot for that.  I will hopefully do ok on the exam and be able to maintain my good grades for the end of my freshman year.

Review for Test Tomorrow

Today in Mr. Schick's class, we went over everything that is going to be on the test tomorrow.  Here are some of the main point Mr. Schick went over:

Middle ages= medieval period

AD 476- AD 1453

The new society has roots in:

• Classical heritage of Rome
• Beliefs of the Roman Catholic Church
• Customs of various Germanic Tribes

5th Century Germanic Invaders

• Overrun the western half of the Roman Empire causing:

1. Disruption of trade
2. Downfall of cities
3. Population shifts to rural areas

Effects of Invasion

Decline of Learning:

• Tribes had oral tradition, songs, but couldn’t read Greek or Latin
• Romance Languages evolve (French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian)
• Few besides priests were literate

Germanic Kingdoms emerge: AD 400-600

• Germanic warrior's loyalty is to the lord of the manor he provides them with food, weapons, treasure
• The result: no orderly government for large areas and small communities rule

Clovis rules the Franks

• Clovis rules the Germanic people of Gaul, known as the Franks (which is where "France" comes from)
• In 496 he has a battlefield conversion- he and 3000 of his warriors become Christians
• The church in Rome likes this
• By 511 the Franks are united into one Kingdom, with Clovis and the Church working as partners

Spread of Christianity

• In 520, Benedict writes rules for monks:

1. Vows of poverty (live simply in monasteries)
2. Chastity (no marital relations)
3. Obedience (listen to church superiors
4. His sister Scholastica writes similar rules for nuns
5. The operate schools, maintain libraries, and copy books

Pope Gregory and Papal Power Play

• Church revenues are used to help the poor, build roads, and raise armies.
• This is a theocracy- ruled by one dominant religion
• Gregory's spiritual kingdom (Christendom) extends from Italy to England, from Spain to Germany

Who's running Europe?

• Clovis' descendants include Charles Martel, known as Charles the Hammer
• Hammer defeats a Muslim raiding party from Spain at the Battle of Tours in 732
• If he hadn't won, western Europe could have become part of the Muslim Empire

How do you follow the Hammer

• Charles Martel's son is Pepin the Short
• Son #1 was Carolman- died in 771
• Son #2 was Charles, known as Charlemagne

Charlemagne- Charles the Great

• Six foot four
• Built the greatest empire since Rome
• Fought the Muslims in Spain
• Fought Germanic Tribes
• Spread Christianity
• Reunited Western Europe
• Became the most powerful king in western Europe
• Pope Leo III crowned him emperor in 800 AD after he defended him from an unruly Roman mob
• This signaled the joining of Germanic power, the Church, and the heritage of the Roman Empire

• Charlemagne's government

• He limited the authority of the nobles
• He regularly visited ever part of his kingdom
• Kept close eye on his huge estates

• Cultural revival

• Encouraged learning
• Ordered monasteries to open schools
• Opened a palace school

• But, his heirs were weenies

• His son- Louis the Pious- was ineffective
• Louis' three sons- Lathiar, Charles the Bald, and Louis the German- split up the kingdom at the Treaty of Verdun in 843 AD

Notes

Here are some notes that we took today on the PowerPoint Mr. Schick put on his blog:

• Many Germanic kingdoms that succeeded the Roman Empire were reunited under Charlemagne’s empire.
• Charlemagne spread Christian civilization throughout northern Europe, 

which is where many of us came from.

• Middle Ages = medieval period
• 476 – 1453 AD

This new society has roots in:

• classical heritage of Rome
• beliefs of the Roman Catholic Church
• customs of various Germanic tribes overrun the western half of the Roman Empire

causing:

• disruption of trade
• downfall of cities
• population shifts to rural areas

Decline of learning

• tribes had oral tradition, songs,    but couldn't read Greek or Latin
• Romance languages evolve (French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian)
• few besides priests were literate

• Germanic Kingdoms emerge: AD 400 - 600
• Germanic warriors' loyalty is to the lord of the manor he provides them w/ food, weapons, treasure

Result: 

• no orderly government for large areas
• small communities rule
• "I would die for my chief, but I see no reason to 

pay taxes to a king I don't even know.  So there."

• Clovis rules the Germanic people of Gaul, known as the Franks (which is where "France" comes from) in 496 he has a battlefield conversion - he and 3000 of his warriors become Christians
• the Church in Rome likes this
• by 511 the Franks are united into one kingdom, with Clovis and the Church working as partners
• Church + Frankish rulers = rise in Christianity
• In 520, Benedict writes rules for monks:
• vows of poverty (live simply in monasteries) 
• chastity (no marital relations)
• obedience (listen to church superiors)
• His sister Scholastica writes similar rules for nuns

they operate schools, maintain libraries, copy books

• Pope Gregory I (Gregory the Great) goes secular (worldly power)
• Church revenues are used to help the poor, build roads, and raise armies
• This is a theocracy
• Gregory's spiritual kingdom (Christendom) extends from Italy to England, from Spain to Germany

• Clovis rules the Franks in Gaul until his death in 511
• Most of the rest of Europe consists of smaller kingdoms (seven in England alone)
• Clovis' descendants include Charles Martel, known as Charles the Hammer (great name!)
• Hammer defeats a Muslim raiding party from Spain at the Battle of Tours in 732 
• (If he hadn't won, western Europe could have become part of the Muslim Empire - that's huge!)

• Charles Martel's son is Pepin the Short
• He works with the Church and is named "king by the grace of God) by the Pope  (Popes can do that?)
• Pepin the Short dies in 768, leaving two sons
• Son #1 - Carloman - dies in 771
• Son #2 is Charles, known as Charlemagne, meaning Charles the Great
• Six feet four inches of rocking ruling warrior greatness! 

More Notes

Today is west civ we talked about the exam a little bit and then took notes.  We are going to have a test on this on Wednesday of next week.

• 511 AD: Clovis united Franks into one kingdom
• 600 AD: Church and Frankish rulers convert many
• Fear of Muslims in southern Europe spur many to become Christians
• Monasteries and convents:

• 520 AD: Benedict wrote the rulers for monks and monasteries
• Poverty, chastity, obedience, and study
• His sister Scholastica did the same for nuns in convents
• 731 AD: the Vulnerable Bede wrote a killer history of England
• Monks opened schools, maintained libraries, and copied books

• A European Empire Evolves:
• Franks control largest European kingdom

• The Roman province formally known as Gaul
• Ruled by Clovis- the Merovingian Dynasty

• Major Domo- mayor of the palace- ruled the kingdom
• Charles Martel- Charles the Hammer

• Extended the frank's reign to the north, south, and east
• Defeated a Muslim army from Spain at the Battle of Tours in 732- historic battle

• Charles the Hammers' son- Pepin the Short

• Possible named for his unusual short haircut
• Working for and with the Pope, Pepin fought the Lombards
• Pope Stephen II named Pepin "king by the grace of God:- beginning the Carolingian Dynasty 751-987 AD
• Pepin had two sons: Carolman and Charles
• Carolman died leaving Charlemagne in charge

• Charlemagne- Charles the Great

• Six foot four
• Built the greatest empire since Rome
• Fought the Muslims in Spain
• Fought Germanic Tribes
• Spread Christianity
• Reunited Western Europe
• Became the most powerful king in western Europe
• Pope Leo III crowned him emperor in 800 AD after he defended him from an unruly Roman mob
• This signaled the joining of Germanic power, the Church, and the heritage of the Roman Empire

• Charlemagne's government

• He limited the authority of the nobles
• He regularly visited ever part of his kingdom
• Kept close eye on his huge estates

• Cultural revival

• Encouraged learning
• Ordered monasteries to open schools
• Opened a palace school

• But, his heirs were weenies

• His son- Louis the Pious- was ineffective
• Louis' three sons- Lathiar, Charles the Bald, and Louis the German- split up the kingdom at the Treaty of Verdun in 843 AD

Notes

Germanic Kingdoms Unite Under Charlemagne

• Many Germanic kingdoms that succeeded the Roman Empire were reunited under Charlemagne's empire
• Charlemagne spread Christian civilization throughout Europe, which is where many of us came from
• Middle ages= medieval period
• 500=1500 AD
• Medieval Europe is fragmented
• Invasions trigger changes in western Europe
• Invasions and constant warfare spark new trends
• Disruption of trade:

• Europe's cities are no longer economic centers
• Money is scarce

• Downfall in cities:

• Cities are no longer centers of administration

• Populations shifts:

• Nobles retreat to the rural areas
• Cities don’t have strong leadership

• Decline of learning:

• Germanic invaders are illiterate, but they communicate through oral tradition
• Only priests and church officials could read and write
• Knowledge of Greek (and literature, science, philosophy) is almost lost

• Loss of common language:

• Dialects develop in different regions
• By the 600s, French, Spanish, other Roman-based languages are evolving from Latin

• Germanic Kingdoms emerge
• The concept of government changes
• Roman society: loyal to family

• Germanic chief led warriors
• During peace, he provided food, weapons, treasure, a place to love (the lord's hall)
• During wartime, warriors fought for the lord

• "The king? Who's that? You want to collect taxes from me? Who the heck are you?"
• Franks live in the Roman province of Gaul- their leader is Clovis
• Franks under Clovis:

• Another battlefield conversion (Just like Constantine)
• Clovis and 300 of his warriors are baptized by the bishop
• The church in Rome approves of this "alliance"
• Clovis and the church begin to work together

A simple math equation:

Clovis' military expertise+ the church's support and money= a strategic alliance between two powerful forces

• Germanic peoples adopt Christianity
• Pope Gregory I expands papal power

• Papacy- pope's office
• Secular power- world power
• Papal power (power of the pope) is political power, presented for the pope's palace
• The church can use church money to: raise armies, repair roads, and help the poor
• Ran like a government
• Gregory the Great began to act as mayor of Rome, and as head of an earthly kingdom (Christendom)

Going Over Test and Taking More Notes

Today in west civ, we went over the test that we took on Wednesday.  I am very happy because I got a 96 on it!  I need to move my grade up 2 more points form an 88 in order to get first honors this quarter.  I hope I can but if I don't I will be really mad because this is exactly what happened to me last quarter.  If I get an 88 as my final grade and it keeps me from first honors I'm gonna be pretty mad, but I think I will be able to move it up by the end of the year. After we went over the test, we took some notes:

• Feudalism: a political, military and economic system based on land-holding and protective alliances. 
• The feudal pyramid:

1. King
2. The most powerful vassals, nobles, and bishops
3. Knights- mounted warriors who received fiefs for defending their lord's land
4. Peasants (mostly serfs)- landless, powerless, moneyless, rights-less, just working the land for "the man" (their lord)

• Manor: the lords estate (House)

• The lord's manor house
• A church
• Some workshops
• 15-30 families
• All on a few square miles

• Good news: its self-sufficient community
• Bad news: its harsh if you're a peasant
• Peasants are poor and pay high taxes
• They have tax on grain, marriage, and church
• They live in crowded cottages
• Live with small animals and insects
• Eat very simply

Page 151 Notes

• The upheaval of the Early Middle Ages ended not in a collapse of civilization but in its renewal.
•  And the first two early medieval centuries set the patterns for how this renewal would later take place in western and eastern Europe.
• The two centuries after the fall of Rome were a time of turmoil in Europe that would continue for five hundred years - a half millennium that counts as the "early" part of the Middle Ages, As with the upheaval of the early Middle Ages ended not in a collapse of civilization but in its renewal, and the first two early medieval centuries set the patterns for how this renewal would later take place in western and eastern Europe. 
• In the Germanic kingdoms that has taken over the western half of the Roman Empire, Roman institutions gradually stopped working, cities ceased to be centers of trade and social life, and warfare became more important that education and culture in the lives of the upper class 
• Roman Empire's surviving eastern half contributed to western Europe's chaos by efforts at recon quest, and then itself came under attack by newly powerful neighbors 

Chronology: 

• Fifth Century: Angles and Saxons invade Britain 
• 486: Clovis leads Frankish confederacy against Romans and rival Germanic invaders in Gaul
• 527-565: Reign of Emperor Justinian in the Eastern empire
• 542: Plague hits Egypt, then spreads throughout the Mediterranean area and much of western Europe
• 568: Lombards conquer most of northern Italy 
• 570-632: Life of Muhammad
• 595: Missionaries sent by the pope begin to convert the pagans of England
• 711: Muslim invasion of Spain
• 800: Slavs occupy almost all of eastern Europe 

Test Tomorrow

Today in west civ, Mr Schick told us that we have a test tomorrow.  I didn't know this but I think that it will be pretty easy because it is mainly on the test we just took and the new notes we got yesterday.  On the last test, I got a 90 and I think I can get a descent grade on this test too.  Hopefully I do get a good grade and it helps bump up my grade to an A but if I don't get a good grade I hope it doesn't bring me down to much.  Hopefully I will still maintain my high B before the end of the year and maybe get it up to an A.

More Notes

Rome

5/12/14

• Economic- trade became risky; taxes were to high; food supply was dropping
• Military- frontiers were hard to patrol; Roman generals fought for control; soldier's loyalty declined and mercenaries appeared
• Diocletian divided the empire into two
• Greek-speaking East- had more resources
• Latin-speaking West- Rome, tradition
• AD 324- Constantine became emperor over both halves of the empire
• Moved the capital from Rome to Byzantium, where Asia met Europe
• After his death, the empire was divided again
• This time, "barbarian invaders" overrun the empire's frontier
• AD 476- Roman Empire was over

Life in the Fourth Century:

• Country dwellers getting bankrupt because of taxes
• Peasants work for elite landlords on large farms
• Peasants can avoid paying taxes, but they are getting hit just as hard by the landlords
• Paying off debts and being "allowed" to live on the land, in exchange for endless back breaking work
• Landowners hold local power as counts and bishops, wielding more real power than the faraway empire
• Foreshadowing feudalism
• Rome's power was beginning to decrease while nomadic barbarians gain power
• Western empire is to poor, begins to be neglected
• Huns migrate from China to eastern Europe
• Visigoths take over Spain and capture and loot Rome itself in 410
• Vandals control Carthage and the Western Mediterranean
• Other barbarian tribes: Ostrogoth's in Italy, Franks in Gaul, and Angels and Saxons in Britain

End of an Era

• Form the beginnings- 500 BC: the monarchy is abolished, 450 BC: the Twelve Tables are established
• Through the glory days- 44 BC: end of the line for Julius Caesar, 27 BC-180 AD: the Roman Peace
• To the bitter end- constant fifth century invasions by barbarian tribes left the western roman empire shattered and crumbling
• The last emperor was a teenage boy installed in 475 by his father
• Barbarians deposed Romulus Augustulus without bothering to kill him

Diocletian

• He was a roman emperor from 284-305
• His family was low status
• He didn’t like Christians- wanted to persecute them out of existence
• Rome needs a big army (400,000 strong)
• Rome needs a big government (20,000)

Constantine

• Ruled from 306-337
• Liked Christians
• Aloud conversion to Christianity- via a cross in the sky (a vision he saw)
• 313: his Edict of Milan proclaims freedom and worship
• Built a new capital in the East

Edict of Milan

• February 313 agreement to treat Christians kindly within the Roman Empire
• It is a proclamation that permanently established religious toleration for Christianity within the Roman Empire
• It stated that it is not allowed to persecute Christians
• Constantine and Licinius met in Milan and among other things, agreed to change policies towards Christians

More Notes on Rome

• Christians and Jews were monotheistic
• They conflicted with the Roman beliefs
• Persecution against both was common
• Christianity was common in poor and since there were a lot of poor people, it was popular
• As it got popular, some Roman leaders embraced Christianity
• AD 313: Constantine has a battlefield conversion
• He issues the Edict of Milan
• Not only no persecution, but actual approval of Christianity, eventually making it the official religion of Rome
• The Roman Empire and Christianity are now linked in power and influence
• The greatest single change that began during the Roman Peace was the spread of Christianity.
• It began within a group called Judaism
• The Germanic barbarians of northern Europe became wealthier, more highly organized, and military stronger as a result of living as Rome's neighbors during the Roman Peace era.
• In 200 A.D., they became a formidable threat that the emperors could hold them off only by building up the army, replacing self- rule by centralizing government, and openly ruling as absolute monarchs.
• In the long run, this failed to hold the empire together, but had lasting results for the future development of the west.
• The empire was still strong enough to bring about the last and greatest of the changes in civilization that took place under its rule
• Eventually, after the empire took Christianity into partnership as the official and majority religion, the barbarians attacks grew too fierce to be resisted, and the empire began to collapse.

Test Today

Today we took the test and I thought it was really easy but then I got confused with the names.  I think that I did pretty well.  I studied the quiz paper and the test was almost identical to that except for the people part.  I got my first A on one of his tests finally!

Test Tomorrow

Today in West Civ, we went over notes for the test tomorrow.  

• Where did the first Indo Europeans settle around 750 BC? -On the Tiber River in the middle of Italy in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea
• What three groups of people dominated the early Rome?- Latin's, Etruscans, Greeks
• What was significant about Tarquin the Proud- last of the Kings and he was run out of Rome because his son raped a women and he didn’t do anything about it
• How does Rome move from a monarchy to a republic?- Ruled by Etruscan kings (monarchy) who were advised by rich patricians (Aristocracy). After Tarquin (tyranny) the government became a democracy
• What's the difference between a patrician and a plebian- Patricians- upper class, landowning, established, powerful.  Plebeians- common people, middle class and some lower class, small time farmers, some wealthy non patricians.
• Senate- Government assembly of 300 unpaid patricians appointed for life first by kings then consuls
• Consuls- two senators who led the government and military for one year terms; could veto each other
• Tribunes- leaders of the plebian assembly; first rather powerless, gaining ground over the years (democracy)
• What is so important about the Twelve Tables? - Public display of the laws; marked the first time that laws were written down in Rome; Set up to protect plebeians who were getting pushed around by patricians; publically displayed in the Forum
• The roman Republic serves as a model for what modern document and what modern government? - the constitution of the Us and its separation of powers; Senate/ Assemblies; Us Senate/ House of reps; Consuls/ Dictator;
• Describe why only the rich could serve in the Senate- Members were not paid; they needed to spend a lot to look good, popular, and powerful, making them electable.  Plebeians couldn’t afford to do that
• The forum is Rome's political center

Notes

Here are some notes that Claire gave me from class that she took:

Caesar

Monday, May 5, 2014

• From Republic to empire
• Caesars real name was Octavian but he went by Caesar because it was his family name
• He was given the honor of the name Augustus
• Pax Romana: Roman peace; a period of peace and prosperity
• Passes power to Tiberius

 The word spreads about risen Jesus

• Paul is instrumental in telling the world about Jesus' life, death, resurrection, and message
• He travels far and wide: Cyprus, Anatolia, Athens, Corinth, Macedonia, Rome, Jerusalem, and maybe even Spain and Britain
• He writes letters to many of those he spoke to- these epistles are a part of the New Testament
• If not for the efforts of Paul, it is likely that Jesus remains an obscure preacher, instead of the central figure of the world's largest religion.

Caligula was after Tiberius

• In addition to being Germanic's' son, he was Tiberius' adopted grandson and great-nephew putting him next in line for emperor
• He started off well; granting bonuses to those in the military, declaring treason trials a thing of the past, and made government spending a matter of public record
• All in all, the first seven months of Caligula's reign were "completely blissful then…..

Bad finish for Caligula

• He began to fight with the Senate
• He claimed to be a god, and had statues displayed in many places-- including the Jewish temple in Jerusalem
• Other examples of cruelty and insanity: he slept with other men's wives and bragged about it, indulged in too much spending and sex, and even tried to make his horse a consul and a priest
• Assassinated by his own aides, AD 41 (age 28)

Next in line: Claudius

• Ostracized by his family because of his disabilities (limp, slight deafness, possible speech impediment, thought to be cerebral palsy or polio), he was the last adult male in his family was Caligula was killed
• He rose to the occasion: he conquered Britain; he built roads, canals, and aqueducts; he renovated the Circus Maximus
• Had an awful marriage to Messalina, who was quite often unfaithful to hum, even plotting to seize power for her lover Silius through a coup - So Claudius had them killed 

Meanwhile- religious troubles

• Christianity and Judaism; monotheistic
• Romans had many gods, plus at times the emperor was viewed as a god
• AD 66: a group of Jews called the Zealots tried to rebel, but Roman troops put them down and burned their temple (except for one wall)
• The Western Wall today id the holiest of all Jewish shrines
• Half a million Jews died in the rebellion

Persecution of Christians

• Romans were harsh toward those who would not worship the emperor
• Especially Christians, who were viewed as followers of a new, upstart religion (cult)
• Often used for "entertainment" purposes in the Coliseum (thrown to the lions etc.)
• Despite the oppression, Christianity grew quickly- by AD 200, around 10 percent of the people in the Roman empire were Christians

Not in Class

I was not in class today because I came in late this morning.

Notes

Page 101

Assassination and Another Caesar

• Romans at home and abroad applauded Caesar's deeds. 
• A stubborn core of Senators were disturbed by his success.
• Caesar had become a Greek style tyrant
• On March 15, 44 B.C., Caesar appeared in the senate house unarmed and the house of senators struck him down with their daggers.
• His death produced yet another crop of warlords and yet more bouts of civil war.
• Mark Antony and Octavian were rival loyalists of Caesar and they each attracted some of Caesar's legions which they used to fight a brutal war against each other in Italy.
• The joined forces against Caesar's assassins and formed another triumvirate together with a lesser warlord, Marcus Lepidus.
• They declared that they would intend to restore the republic but they also had the Senate proclaim Caesar a "Divine Being"
• The partners then divided the Roman world, with Octavian based in Rome, Lepidus in North Africa, and Mark Antony in Alexandria.
• The balance of power began swinging toward Octavian
• Antony was in love with Queen Cleopatra, one of the last descendants of the Greek rulers of Egypt, and this made his unpopular in Rome.
• In 31 BC, the rulers of the two halves in Rome went to war
• Octavian defeated Antony and Cleopatra and then they committed suicide
• Octavian became the supreme warlord.

Page 103

• The Roman version of Greco- Roman civilization prevailed in the Western territories, and the Greek version was dominant in the East.
• Roman literature, art, philosophy, law, architecture and engineering were often inspired by Greek models, but Roman achievements in these fields eventually equaled the Greeks
• In the West, the Native languages of conquered European barbarian peoples began to be replaced by Latin
• In the east, Egyptian hieroglyphic writing fell out of use
• The language of new Latin speakers began a lengthy evolution into the Latin languages of today.

LO1 Pages 104-107

• Augustus refused to take a long term dictatorship and referred to himself as princeps- a traditional name for prominent leaders who were considered indispensable to the republic
• He was confirmed as commander in chief of the armed forces in 27 B.C.
•  The peoples assemblies lost what remained of their power to elect magistrates and make laws
• Augustus followed the dictator's even more arrogant-seeming example of accepting religious worship himself
•  After Augustus won supreme power, Greek cities in Antolia began building shrines and sacrificing to "Rome and Augustus" 
• Augustus also acquired the tile of Father of the Fatherland and took seriously the father duty of supervising the behavior of his "household"- especially of the upper classes in Rome
• Still, the Romans already believed that there was something divine about every paterfamilias and every matron; add they regarded community life as a kind of large-scale family life and most other peoples of the empire had similar beliefs 
• Ensuring peace and stability involved not only changing the way the Roman city-state worked, but also reorganizing the whole of Rome's empire
• First, he brought the system of government appointments under his personal control
• Second, Augustus showed respect for local institutions and encouraged provincial leaders to fulfill their responsibilities 
• Third, Augustus reorganized the army to ensure the loyalty of the rank-and-file soldiers
• Then Augustus gradually brought about his single most drastic reform 
• Augustus and his successors broke with the Roman tradition of citizen-soldiers to crate the world's first professional standing army 
• Even after Augustus's troop cuts, his army was still far larger than the forces that Romes had usually maintained in the past 
• Having no sons of his own, Augustus finally settled of Tiberius 
• At first, the emperors who succeeded Tiberius during the first century A.D. emerged usually after vicious family infighting 
• Near the end of the first century, the Flavian dynasty, too, came to an end following the assassination of another tyrannical emperor 
• Subsequent rulers for much of the second century happened to have no sons by blood who survived them, so they, too, adopted sons whom they also proclaimed as their successor 
• Toward the end of the second century, the line of emperors by adoption and designation came to an end when Commodus, Marcus Aurelius's son by blood, outlived him, ruled irresponsibly, and was eventually murdered  
• Augustus's governing structure endured until the troubled times of the late third century 
• Roman Peace: a term used to refer to the relative stability and prosperity that Roman rule brought to the Mediterranean world and much of western Europe during the first and second centuries A.D.